5 Important Systems of Psychology

The following points highlight the five important systems of psychology. The systems are: 1. Structuralism 2. Functionalism 3. Behaviourism 4. Gestalt Psychology and  5. Psychoanalysis.

System # 1. Structuralism:

Four German Psychologists Ernst Weber (1795-1878), Gustav Fechner (1801-1887), Herman Von Helmhaltz(1821 -1894) and Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) were intimately associated with the making of psychology as an experimental science. It was through research in psychology that each became interested in psychological problems.

Wundt brought together the various lines of research in his first systematic book of psychology entitled Physiological Psychology (1873). He also founded the first experimental laboratory of psychology in Leipzig (Germany) in 1879. Earlier William James (1842-1910), an American philosopher and scientist, had set up a small demonstration laboratory at Harvard in 1871, which he used as an adjunct to teaching.

After receiving his M.D. degree in 1858, Wundt started his career as a physiologist, but soon became interested in the more complex mental processes and was convinced that experimental methods of the physiologist could be applied to research on consciousness. He is called the father of experimental psychology. Wundt’s psychology was transplanted to the United States by his most outstanding student, Edward Bradford Titchener( 1867-1927). His another brilliant student James McKeen Cattell (1860-1944) of Columbia University worked on the psychology of individual differences.

E.B. Tichener (1867-1927) carried systematic research on the lines of Wundtian tradition. He believed that the science of psychology should deal only with things as they are found to exist. The main objective of psychology is to study and understand human mind and its structure that is isolating elementary processes from the complexity of consciousness.

In his own words, “No concrete mental process, no idea of feeling that we actually experience as part of a consciousness is a simple process but that all alike are made up of a number of really simple processes blended together. These simple processes are called mental elements. They are numerous; there are probably some 50,000 of them; but they all be grouped into broad classes, as sensations and affections.” Scientific enquiry goes from ‘parts to the wholes.’ So one must begin with the atoms of a total situation.

Structuralism has been criticised on the ground that general system of psychology was too narrow to embrace all aspects of human behaviour.

Educational Implications:

1. Since structuralism emerged out of laboratory experiments in Germany, it gave a careful method of data collection.

2. It laid stress on the spirit of science and experimentation in treating educational matters.

3. It emphasised systematic observation of the activities of mind.

4. Experiments in the field of educational psychology were initiated on the basis of experimentation of structuralism.

5. It provides introspection as a method of studying behaviour.

System # 2. Functionalism:

Functionalism is the name given to a system of psychology which studies mind as it functions in adapting the organism to its environment. The roots of this point of view goes back to the evolutionary biology of Charles Darwin (1809-1882) and the pragmatic philosophy of William James (1842-1910).

The functinalist point of view came into educational psychology and developed into a movement under the leadership of John Dewey (1859-1952), James Rowl and Angell (1869-1949) and Harvey Carr (1873- 1954).

William James (1842-1910):

William James the father of American Psychology spent most of his academic career at Harvard University. He was in turn a physiologist, psychologist and philosopher. His outstanding contribution in psychology was his brilliant book, Principles of Psychology (1890).

His another book, Talks to Teachers (1899) is also of great significance. James made it clear that mind, as it is revealed in habits, knowledge and perception is constantly engaged in active give-and-take relations with the environment. Mind, therefore, is useful or functional in adjustment. He emphasised the role of interest in learning. He stated that “The great thing in all education is to make the nervous system our ally instead of our enemy.”

John Dewey (1859-1952) was a great philosopher, educator and psychologist. Dewey developed an interest in psychology while working for his doctorate on Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). It was at Michigan University where he taught psychology as well as philosophy and he wrote his functionally oriented textbook entitled, Psychology (1986) which became highly popular with undergraduate students.

In keeping with his functional point of view in psychology, Dewey’s philosophy saw social change as inevitable and capable of being directed for man’s benefit. He treated ideas as plans for action that help the individual solve problem, of living and adjustment.

In 1896, Dewey published his famous paper, “The Reflex Act Concept in Psychology” in which he argued that reflexes and other forms of behaviour ought to be interpreted in terms of their significance for adaptation. He believed that the study of the ‘organism as a whole functioning in its environment’ was the proper subject- matter for psychology. In due course, Dewey became world famous as an exponent of the pragmatic point of view in philosophy and for his advocacy of progressive education.

Contribution of Functionalism to Education:

Following is the chief contribution of functionalism to education:

1. Functionalism stresses that behaviour is adaptable to new situation of life. Accordingly, the teachers and the principal should provide such an environment to the students for learning as is conducive to arouse and sustain their motivation in learning.

2. Functionalism tended to replace theoretically overloaded curriculum by practical approaches.

3. Learning by doing was given a central place in the methods of teaching-learning.

4. Functionalism emphasised the study of the various problems of the individual and their solutions.

5. It contributed a lot to child psychology and mental testing.

6. It pointed out the importance to understand the needs of children at different age levels.

7. It stressed the aspect of utility. In other words, it indicated that only those subjects should be included in the curriculum which were useful in society.

8. It led to the development of scientific enquiry in education.

9. It initiated new methods of teaching and learning.

System # 3. Behaviourism:

John B. Watson (1878-1958) was an American psychologist who became an ardent proponent of behaviourism. As a graduate student at the University of Chicago, during formative years of functionalistic movement, he became interested in animal research and founded an animal laboratory. He emphasised the study of behaviour by experiments. He explained his behaviourism in an article “Psychology and the Behvaiourist” which was published in the Psychological Review (1913).

He explained his point of view in three books– An Introduction to Comparative Psychology (1914). Psychology from the stand-point of a Behaviourist (1919) and Behaviourism (1925). He believed that concepts like ‘mind-consciousness’ and image have place. He stated that, psychology was the Science of behaviour. According to him behavioural acts are to be described objectively in “terms of stimulus and response, in terms of habit formation, habit integration and the like.”

Watson discarded mentalistic concepts such as consciousness and mind, etc. and proposed the following methods for the behavioural research:

1. Observation, with and without instrumental control.

2. The conditioning reflex method.

3. The verbal report method.

4. Testing method.

Watson showed how the objective, analytic methods of animal laboratory could be applied to human beings, particularly through the use of the conditioning response. In his book The Psychological Care of the Infant and Child (1929) he pointed out the use of infants and children as subjects for psychological investigation. Watson suggested that the behaviouristic psychology had much to offer such professions as advertising, law, industry and education.

Contribution of Behaviourism to Education:

P. Symonds has given the following implications of behaviourism for teaching and learning, “The most potent reward (reinforcement) for classroom learning is the teacher’s acceptance what the pupil does and the way he does it because this acceptance becomes a guide in his future activities. This acceptance on the part of the teacher can take the form of tangible tokens, such as gold stairs, honours rolls and the like. But there is a tendency to short- circuit so that a “correct or right will do equally well.”

Following are the chief contributions of behaviourism to education:

1. Behaviourism has given new methods and techniques of understanding the child behaviour.

2. It has contributed to the understanding of the emotions of the child.

3. It has given new methodology of teaching known as ‘programmed learning’ which has been successfully employed in several countries.

4. It points out that all behaviour is learnt in the process of interaction with environment.

5. It emphasises the importance of environment and its impact on human growth.

6. It has led to the development of new approaches, methods and techniques of dealing with maladjustment in children.

7. It has brought psychology out from the controversy of mentalistic approach to human behaviour.

8. It has greatly contributed to the psychology of learning.

9. It has indicated the importance of motivation.

System # 4. Gestalt Psychology:

Gestalt psychologists took up arms against behaviourist and functionalist psychologists. They were represented by Max Wertheimer (1880-1943), Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967) and Kurt Koffka (1886-1941) — all German psychologists. The fundamental Gestalt principle is that “the whole is different from the sum of its parts.” Gestalt is a German word meaning whole, form, figure or configuration. The Gestalt psychologists took a dynamic or field view of the nervous system in place of the behaviouristic machine view.

Although born in Prague (Czechoslovakia), Wertheimer is associated with German psychologists as he did a lot of research work at the German Universities. He launched the Gestalt School as a new movement opposed to both structuralism and behaviourism. In his well-known book Productive Thinking (1945), he attacked the traditional view of ‘association’ and ‘rote learning’ as the foundation of the thought processes.

Wertheimer demonstrated with considerable success that when the teacher arranged problems to organize the elements of classroom exercises into meaningful wholes, insight would occur. This he contrasted sharply with the usual educational practices of drill and rote-learing. There were extensions of the Gestalt point of view into personality, child psychology and motivation, etc.

Contribution of Gestalt Psychology to Education:

1. Gestaltists give importance to the perception of relation, organisation and whole in learning. They state that it is the whole which determines the behaviour of its part. This implies that the teacher should present his subject-matter as a whole in the class.

2. Goals and purposes have an important place in learning. They activate the learners.

3. The teacher should start where the learner’s perception are and not where his own perceptions happen to be.

4. The principal, the teachers and the students should work as an organised whole to improve the teacher-learning process in the school.

5. Behaviourism has thrown new light on the group or social learning in the classroom. It considers group behaviour to be an important factor in learning.

6. Gestalt psychology points out the need for interdisciplinary approach to educational problems.

7. Gestalt psychologists stress that learning by insight is more forceful.

8. Gestalt psychology emphasises the importance of desirable environment for learning.

System # 5. Psychoanalysis:

In the words of J.P. Chaplin and T.S. Krawiec (1979) “Of all the schools of psychology, psychoanalysis has captured the imagination of the general public to the extent that many laymen erroneously equate psychology with psychoanalysis.” This highly influential movement got underway in Vienna at the end of the 19th century under the leadership of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939).

Freud obtained a degree in medicine with specialisation in neurology. As a practising physician, he became aware that many of his patients were in reality suffering from mental conflicts that were manifested as physical ailments and disorders. He was convinced that what the patient needed was psychotherapy rather than physical therapy. He became associated with a French practitioner. J.M. Charcot (1825-1893) and a German J. Breuer (1842-1925) who had been utilising hypnotic treatment in the case of hysteric patients.

Freud deeply studied the technique of hynotherapy and found that its scope, was limited and in several cases the cure was superficial. The illness subsequently broke out in another form with a different set of symptoms. Freud eventually recognised that the real value lay in the psychic analysis.

The psychoanalysis usually consists of having the patient relax on a couch and freely tell whatever comes to his or her mind. This is the method of free association. The psychoanalyst listens to and observes the patient as un-obstructively as possible for emotional reactions, signs of distress and resistance to treatment. Out of his clinical experience Freud developed a number of important concepts-the division of the personality into id, ego and superego.

He emphasised the importance of unconscious in mental life. He considered the dream a main route into unconscious process. Dream interpretation became an important part of both the therapeutic process and theory of psychoanalysis. Freud also felt that sexual malfunctions underlie hysteria and other neurotic disorders. His conclusions that neurotic disturbances originate in early childhood have made everyone who is engaged in the care, training and education of children, extremely child-centered.

The impact of Freudian psychoanalysis had profound influence on the direction of development psychology which considers the child no longer as a miniature adult but as an individual with his or her own needs, potentials and problems.

Freud’s collected works consist of twenty-four volumes.

His landmark publications include the following:

1. The Interpretation of Dreams (1900).

2. The Psychopathology of Everyday Life (1904).

3. The Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905).

4. Beyond the Pleasure Principle (1920).

5. The Future of an Illusion (1928).

6. Civilization and Its Discontents (1930).

Contribution of Psychoanalysis to Education:

1. Psychoanalysis has brought out the need for early childhood education.

2. Freud emphasised that unconscious motivation plays an important role in the process of learning.

3. Psychoanalysis emphasises the importance of the experiences of early childhood in the process of learning and education. These early experiences play an important role in laying down the foundation of the personality of the child. Among the major factors leading to the development of positive attitudes in the child towards life are affection, love and sympathy.

4. Psychoanalysis states that children should get opportunities to express their emotions freely in and outside the class. This is very conducive to the healthy development of children.

5. Psychonalaysis throws a lot of light on the causes leading to maladjustment in children.

6. Psychoanalysis appeals to the teachers to be positive in their outlook.