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In this article we will discuss about:- 1. Meaning and Definitions of Transfer of Training 2. Types of Transfer 3. Theories 4. Experiments 5. Educational Implications.
Meaning and Definitions of Transfer of Training:
It is common belief that training in one subject is transferred to another subject. If we study mathematics, the logical reasoning developed in solving complex mathematical problems is so developed that it is utilised in other situation.
It is again generally said that study of science develops scientific spirit, the teaching of grammar develops discipline of mind, music develops aesthetic sense and cricket develops sportsmanship in every walk of life.
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All these common beliefs are subject of scientific discussion. In case these beliefs are correct, many of our educational practices are sound. Then we say that transfer of training takes place from one subject to another.
Thus if the training in one act is transferred to another, we say transfer has taken place.
Definitions:
1. Crow and Crow:
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“The carry-over of habits of thinking, feeling, or working of knowledge or of skills, from one learning area to another usually is referred to as the transfer of training.”
2. Skinner:
“Transfer of training is concerned with the question of whether or not the learning of material A-say Mathematics – aids, hinders or does not affect the subsequent learning of material B – say Physics or Chemistry.
3. Sorrenson:
“A person learns through transfer to the extent that the abilities acquired in one situation help in another.”
4. W.B. Kolesnik:
“Transfer is the application of carry over the knowledge’s, skills, habits, attitudes or other responses from the situation in which they are initially acquired to some other situation.”
5. Peterson:
“Transfer is generalization for it is extension of ideas to a new field.”
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6. Hilgard Atkinson Atkinson:
(Introduction to Psychology)” The influence that learning one task, may have on the subsequent learning of another is called transfer of learning.”
7. Guthrie & Others:
“Transfer may be defined as a process of extending and applying behaviour.”
8. Encyclopaedia of Educational Research:
“The term’ learning’ would be applied to the special kind of transfer phenomena in which there is great similarity between training conditions and test conditions.”
Types of Transfer:
On the basis of magnitude or quality, it is of three types-positive, zero and negative.
Positive Transfer:
In this case, the past learning of one subject or activity facilitates the learning of another subject or activity. A sportsman playing football plays volley-ball as nicely. A bus-driver can drive a truck also equally efficiently.
Zero Transfer:
In this case, the learning of one subject does help the learning of another. There may be zero transfer between language and mathematics.
Negative Transfer:
Herein learning of one task makes the learning of a second task harder. Learning shorthand by Danton method may cause interference in subsequent learning by Pitman method. The negative transfer is also called habit interferences.
One form of positive transfer is bilateral transfer or cross-transfer. Practice in using right hand while handling a machine in the factory may help handling by the left hand.
Theories of Transfer:
There are a number of theories regarding transfer of training.
The major theories are explained briefly below:
1. Mental Faculty Theory:
This theory is the out-come of Faculty School of Psychology, which believed that mind is composed of a number of independent faculties like memory, attention, will, imagination, reasoning and temperament. According to this theory, a particular faculty works in every situation. If a person possesses strong memory, he can use it in any situation. He will be able to remember anything.
Theory has been abandoned now. It has been found experimentally that there is no faculty (amongst many) that is used in different situations. Take memory, for instance. Memory is of different types visual memory, auditory memory, immediate memory, rote memory, etc. Training in visual memory does not affect auditory memory and vice-versa. Hence this theory is not tenable now.
2. Theory of Formal Discipline:
According of this theory some school subjects or instructional items have a disciplinary value, apart from the knowledge value. Subjects like classics, geometry, logic and grammar train the mind and strengthen the faculties of observations and scientific thinking.
The advocates of formal discipline undermined the study of practical or utilitarian subjects, because the subjects having disciplinary value could train to learn to meet all situations in life. Geometry, for instance, was enough to strengthen the reasoning faculty.
Appraisal of the Theory:
A number of experiments were made to find out the significance and truth of the theory.
(i) William James was the first person to attack on this problem. He determined to find out whether practising memorisation of poetry really helped general memory. He discovered that it did not help at all.
(ii) Thorndike also made experiment on reasoning ability. But he found that one subject was as good as another in developing reasoning ability. Greek and Latin made no better logicians than Science or Physical Education.
These and such other evidences disproved the theory of formal discipline.
3. Theory of Identical Component:
According to this theory transfer takes place from one situation to another to the extent that there are common or identical elements (or components) in the two situations. Reasoning ability is common to Geometry and Physics. Hence transfer can take place here.
Modern psychologists also believe that mental functions like perception, attention, memory and reasoning are not separate entities but interrelated aspects of the total functioning of the mind.
Hence learned response in one situation may benefit the learner in another situation, if there are common elements in it. This theory was propounded by Thorndike. He says, “By identical elements are meant mental process which have the same cell action in the brain as their physical correlate”. Latter Woodworth substituted the word element by component.
Examples:
(i) A boy who is a good hockey-player can be a good football- player also, because in playing hockey he has learnt the skill of keeping eye on the ball, judging the flight of the ball, catching the ball, hitting the ball, hitting the ball towards the companion or the goal etc. All these skills will help him in both the games. These skills are common elements in the two games.
(ii) A girl who has practised hemming a towel by hand can hem a short or a curtain in the same nice manner, because hemming skill is common to both.
(iii) A student who acquires good expression and style in writing in one language can be as good a writer in another language he learns.
Educational Implication:
This theory has got significant implications. There are a number of a courses in our scheme of studies which have identical elements. It would be profitable to form a group of all those subjects which possess identical or common components. This grouping of subjects was unknown during the last century. But the present higher secondary curriculum is based on the same principle.
The elective groups constitute of the subjects which have common elements. These common elements are related to some special skill or ability. If a student possesses that special ability he will profit by taking up that educational course in which all the subjects are related to ability.
Secondly, now-a-days, we like to drop all those topics and skills, from the school curriculum which are unique and isolated. A subject or topic which has nothing common with other subjects, may be dropped. A number of a topics in arithmetic like stocks and shares’, ‘trains’, ‘pipes and cisterns’ are being dropped on this account.
Again, subjects which are of practical nature, which develop a number of abilities, like scientific curiosity, initiative, originality, resourcefulness, application of knowledge, judgment and reasoning, are being emphasised more. The curriculum is being divested of much of the theoretical topics. Practical work, activity, projects, assignments, field-work and application are being emphasised more.
4. Theory of Generalisation:
Charles Judd has gone a step further in propounding this theory. He accepts the common element theory but gives further explanation that transfer takes place because the pupil learns to acquire some broad principles or generalisations which he applies in a number of situations with common elements. The attitudes, skill and abilities are transferred only when these are systematised and related to many situations wherein these can be utilised.
Suppose two situations a common element viz., punctuality. According to the common element theory, a boy who is punctual at dinner party should be punctual for school also. But no, this may not always be true. The child will not be punctual in both situations, unless ‘punctuality’ has become a part of the child’s attitude pattern as a result of schooling and training.
Again, a child may be tidy in the school for fears of punishment, but he may be untidy at home. Transfer can take place from school situation to home (or vice-versa) if the child full grasps the principle of tidiness, and gains a complete view of the principle.
Symbolically we may say what is learned in situation X gets transferred in situation Y when a general principle applicable to both is acquired. Judd explained this principle through an experiment on two groups of boys regarding throwing darts at a target placed 12 inches under water.
He explained the principle of refraction to one group could not apply the principle as the target was very deep. But next time, the target was kept only four inches deep. This time that group only. But that did not help that group, because the pupils in that group fared better. Hendrickson and Schoroder made further experiments of this type and confirmed the theory.
This theory is in consonance with the Gestalt theory of Psychology. The Gestaltists believe that learning of a meaningful configuration presumes a kind of organisation that modifies the organism. The organisation leads to the necessity of generalisations.
Educational Implications:
It has been accepted now that there are certain broad principles which govern the learning of some groups of subjects. In the absence of generalised principles, isolated or fragmented pieces of information are soon forgotten. We may forget the entire Physics long after the schooling is completed, but some generalised principles that the study of Physics gave to us, can be applied to a number of other situations in life.
Even in the teaching of a particular subject, transfer from one situation can take place to another, if the generalised principles to both are comprehended. In spelling, for example, grouping of words with similar spellings may lead to improvement in spelling, as it may help the pupil to see a generalised principle which he can apply.
Virtually speaking, the Theory of Generalisation is only an extension of the Theory of Identical Components. The latter talks of common elements, and these are substituted by the word ‘common rules’ in the former. Many psychologists take these two theories as identical.
5. Transposition Theory:
This theory has been put forth by Gestalt psychologists. Gestalt Psychology emphasises the total pattern of behaviour. So transfer is dependent upon the whole-part relations between the old and the new situations. It is not the principle or generalisation that is at the basis of transfer, but the understanding of the relationship between facts, processes and principles. Hence the need for ‘transposition’.
Thus a song learned in a certain key may be recognised even in a different key. The component of the song may be different, but that does not hamper the transfer. It is because of the understanding of the total situation.
6. Theory of Ideals:
W.C. Bagley, goes a step further from the Theory of Generalisation, and he emphasises ‘ideals’ or generalised attitudes at the basis of all transfer. Ideals are rather deeper than generalisations, generalised attitudes.
There is no denying the fact that ideals, once adopted, and adopted seriously, are applicable to all situations. The truth-seeking ideal, the spirit of enquiry, the love for wisdom and thirst for discovery are transferable from one subject to another, whether it is science or philosophy or history.
The teacher will do well to emphasise some practicable ideals, which can be applied to majority of situations. If these ideals are kept in view, teaching methods will secure greater transfer.
Two more theories viz. Edward Tolman’s Theory and Lewin’s Field Theory are not so significant, hence not discussed here.
Conclusion:
Six theories have been explained above. The Theory of Formal Discipline has been discarded now, as it does not accord with the facts discovered after numerous experiments. There is nothing like a mental discipline which may be gained from one subject, and transferred to another.
Memorisation of paradigms of grammar, or of stanzas of poetry or of non-sense syllabus will no longer strengthen the memory of a person. That will be applied in an entirely different situation, say remembering the prices of commodities in a business-shop. Like Browning’s Grammarian, who died of cancer, most of the grammarians are prone to get no benefit from the knowledge of grammar in solving actual problem of life, such as maintaining health, succeeding in a vocation etc.
The other four theories have much in common, and these prove that transfer of learning does occur. These theories are only different explanations of the same truth, in varied linguistic expressions. Identical components, general principles, ideals and total patterns are in fact the same thing.
Having thus proved that transfer of learning does occur, we would like to understand how it occurs. In this respect a brief discussion of some experiments made will not be out of context.
Experiments of Transfer:
In conducting experiments on transfer of learning varied types of materials have been utilised by psychologists.
The different types are:
(a) Sensori-motor,
(b) Perceptual,
(c) Memory,
(d) Reasoning
(e) Ideals,
(f) Problem-solving, and
(g) School subjects.
1. Experiments of Sensori-Motor:
(i) Starch experimented with the mirror drawing of a star. The subject was asked to draw the figure of a star with his left hand after looking at the figure in mirror. The paper for writing was concealed from the sight. The time taken in doing was noted. Then he was asked to draw the figure with the right hand. Practice given for 10 days. It was found that now the person could do it in less time than before, proving transfer of skill from hand to hand.
(ii) Web tried to determine whether learning to thread a pathway through a maze with a stylus aided, helped learning several other mazes. He used both animal and human subjects. He discovered that one maze helped the learning of other mazes. The degree of transfer was positive, but it varied from one individual subject to another from 19 to 77% so there is positive transfer from one sensori-motor to another.
2. Experiments on Perceptual Materials:
Thorndike and Woodworth have worked in this field. Some minor experiments on perceptual material have been made. The subject was given a line of fixed length, and told the measurement. He was then asked to estimate the length of a number of lines of varied length shorter or longer than the first.
A square of one dimensions is presented. It is compared with a number of other squares as regards their areas. Two circles of which one has double radius, are compared as regards their area. The subjects are thus tested whether they can apply the knowledge or judgement of length, dimensions, area, volume, weight and colour from one situation to another.
3. Experiments on Memory:
(i) William James memorised 158 lines from Victor Hugo’s Satyr’ and kept account of the time took him – viz., 132 minutes. He then spent 38 days (about 20 minutes per day) in learning the first book of Milton’s Paradise Lost’. Then he selected again 158 lines from the ‘Satyr’ and remembered them, and to his surprise it took him 151 minutes, i.e., more than what was needed on the first occasion. This lead to the refutation of the Theory of Formal Discipline.
(ii) W.H. Winch conducted a controlled experiment by having two equated groups with the same memory ability, one experimental group and other control group. The experimental group memorised poetry for 2 weeks. On retesting both the groups it was found that the experimental group fared better.
(iii) W.G. Sleight tested the effect of memorising poetry, tables and prose upon the ability of memorise data, nonsense syllables, poetry, prose and letters. He discovered little or no transfer.
His conclusions were:
(a) There appears to be no general memory improvement as a result of practice.
(b) There would seem instead to be a very large number of related and unrelated memory functions of a more or less complex kind.
Many other experiments educated also signify that practice does not improve memory. The transfer memory depend upon the specific activity exercise and its relation to memory activity to which it is transferred.
4. Experiments on Reasoning:
(i) Winch used school children to determine the value of training arithmetical reasoning problems in solving other logical problems. He trained the experimental group in arithmetical problems, and found after retesting that it fared 30% better than the control group which was not trained in arithmetic problem solving.
(ii) Barlow, on the basis of his experiment claims that training in analysis, abstraction and generalisation helps in interpreting fables and language material.
5. Experimentals on Ideals:
(i) Bagley, emphasised neatness and accuracy in arithmetic papers to a third grade. Although the pupils slowed improvement in neatness and accuracy in arithmetic papers, there was deterioration in these aspects in language papers.
Neatness did not get transferred from arithmetic to language. But Bagley went a step further. In another investigation, he emphasised neatness in all the papers, as an ideal to be followed when he retested the pupils for neatness, he found considerable improvement. Thus he concluded that ideas can transfer.
6. Experiments on Problem Solving:
(i) Gray conducted experiment in code substitution on two educated groups. He gave initial test and then gave training in a new code to experimental groups by a method in which emphasis was placed upon its logical relationship. Upon retesting, the experimental group evinced an advantage of 20 percent in its performance over the other group.
(ii) Judd and Scholcknow conducted experiments on hitting of target 12″ under water. To the experimental group they gave training in the principles of refraction in water. This training did not give any advantage to them because the target was too deep. But on a second time the water level was lowered, and the target was only 4″ under water. This time the experimental group fared better as they used theoretical knowledge.
7. Experiments on School Subjects:
(i) Brigs’ conducted experiment on two groups through relation group technique in the effect of grammar on the one hand, and composition on the other. Two groups were equated in intelligence. By rotation, one group was trained in grammar and tested in grammar, and then trained in language and composition and then retested.
The second group was trained in language and composition, then tested in that, and then trained in grammar at the end of three months. The two groups were compared, It was found that grammar groups improved is only one of the abilities measured, viz., the ability to see likeness and difference.
(ii) Winch took up two equated groups in reasoning ability. One group practised arithmetic computation 30 minutes a day for 10 days. The other group practised drawing. After 10 days both groups were tested for arithmetical reasoning ability, and were found equal. So no transfer took place.
(iii) Thorndike experimented upon 8000 students, gave them preliminary intelligence test, studied them during one year’s instructional period in a high, and again tested their intellectual capacity, to find out whether one year’s instructions had any transfer effect up intellectual activity.
The pupils showed a gain of 23 points on the second test. But the maximum gain was by the 1% pupils of the highest intelligence (20 ½ points). Pupils of low intelligence gained very little (1½ points). Thorondike concluded that intelligence rather than study of subjects contributed to the improvement in reasoning ability and intellectual activity.
(iv) Wesman found correlation between intelligence test scores and achievement test scores at the beginning and end of a school year, and concluded the presence of transfer.
(v) Rugg found that a course in descriptive geometry transferred 32% to other geometrical material.
(vi) Thorndike made another experiment on transfer from Latin to English. He found that high school freshmen who studied Latin for a year gained in a knowledge of English words of Latin origin about 2½ times as much as these who did not study Latin. He further found that transfer value of knowledge of Latin was 10%. But the transfer in reality was in relation to those English words which were of Latin origin. The transfer was negative in relation to spelling words of non-Latin origin.
Summary of the conclusions through Experimentations:
(i) Positive transfer does take place in majority of the cases, although absence of transfer and negative transfer also have found in certain cases. This positive transfer goes even upto 92%, and the variations are usually due to conditions under which it takes place.
(ii) Some subjects do have transfer value. The teacher should find out the value of each subject in helping the student meet situations in life.
(iii) In order to increase the degree of positive transfer, learning conditions in the class-room should be improved. Some experiments have proved that instruction in the methods of learning considerably increase the degree of positive transfer. L. W. Webb generalises: “It has been proved that the methods used in learning, the methods of instruction employed, the attitude of the learner at the time the transfer is to take place, the generalising of an experience, and the degree of mastery to material are all extremely effective in increasing the degree of positive transfer”.
(iv) Positive transfer increases, if knowledge is imparted in a way that its application is emphasised. Teach arithmetic not for the sake of arithmetic, but for application. The pupils will learn to transfer their arithmetic experience to various aspects for their life.
(v) Even after studying the various theories about transfer of training, we cannot come to a conclusive result about the varying conditions that affect the degree of transfer, or about causes of transfer. All that we know is transfer does take place, and it takes place in situations which have common elements, or common principles or common ideals. It is the duty of the teacher to obtain largest possible value from the experiences he is giving to students by making them to apply the experience in many situations.
(vi) Rote learning has been found useless, as it has no transfer value. All theoretical voltage learnt for its own sake has no transfer value. Knowledge that can be applied has got transfer value.
(vii) What affects transfer is not only the applicability of the experience but also the desirable attitude, dispositions, and methods of learning.
Educational Implications of Transfer of Training:
1. Factors Affecting Transfer of Training:
It is a crucial question before the teacher, how to secure maximum transfer. He must know the factors that determine or affect transfer. We conclude and reply to this question on the basis of the theories propounded by psychologists and experiments conducted.
The three major factors are:
(i) Intelligence,
(ii) Positive attitude and
(iii) Meaningfulness of the contents.
(i) Intelligence:
The amount of transfer is closely related to the intelligence of the learners. Thorndike’s experiments give clear evidence. Brighter children transfer their experience more effectively in different situations than average or dull children. The intelligent pupil comprehends the subject-matter more efficiently, masters it, remembers it and over-learns it. Over-learning helps greater transfer.
(ii) The positive self-confident attitude:
Influences greater transfer when the pupil knows that a particular subject is to be learnt not for the sake of examination but for its intrinsic work, for its applicability, when he is confident of its utility in varying situations, he is bound to apply the knowledge in as large extent of the field as possible. The teacher and the pupil should be conscious of the goal.
(iii) Generalising affects transfer i.e., transfer depends up on the extent to which principles are developed and experiences are made more meaningful. The common elements, common principles and common ideals in different situations, affect transfer. This has already been explained above in connection with common. Element Theory, Theory of Generalisation and Theory of Ideals.
2. Factors helping Maximum Transfer:
Three essential conditions ensure maximum transfer.
Firstly, the purport and meaning of the subject-matter taught should be explained fully and in minute details. It is not enough to dole out some geographical facts to be mugged up.
Thoroughness and details will stimulate the pupil to think more and apply the knowledge in different situations. The paragraph in a language lesson could be explained with all its details — grammar, spelling, pronunciation, idiom, etymology, beauty of thought etc. This will ensure maximum transfer.
Secondly, all learning should take place in living and concrete situations. Thus all unreal problems in arithmetic, useless items in grammar, memorisation of dates and names in history and geography, which have no utility in life situations should be eliminated from the curriculum.
Thirdly, pupils should be given as much of practical experience as possible. The curriculum should contain subjects of practical nature, which are applicable in vocations or life situations.
3. Curriculum and Transfer:
The theories and experimental evidences regarding transfer of learning provide us with certain broad principles on the basis of which we can remodel, overhaul or reorganise the present curriculum in order to secure-greater transfer.
(i) Disciplinary value of subjects:
As the theory of formal discipline is no longer acceptable now, there is no reason for inclusion or rejection of any subject in the curriculum simply for its disciplinary value. We can easily dispense with theoretical grammar, Euclid’s logic (in geometrical theorems) and classical languages which to thought to be of disciplinary value.
(ii) Varying Importance of Subjects:
All subjects in the present curriculum do not have equal value. Some subject are least connected with life situations (like ancient history), and these have the least transfer value. The present approach is the social-utility approach in including a subject or a topic in the curriculum.
(iii) Subject-matter Vs. Experiences:
Thorndike and Wesman have experimentally proved that it is not the subject-matter but the experiences gained in the study of the subject that is important and useful for future applicability. The transfer value of all the subjects for any trait (say improvement in reasoning) is almost equal.
But the experiences gathered by the pupils differ, and that accounts for greater or lesser positive transfer. Hence an attempt should be made to provide superior experiences leading to greater transfer rather than teach subjects in a theoretical manner.
Mathematics enjoys no monopoly for developing reasoning ability. There are no less opportunities for the same in the teaching of other subjects, say geography or history or physics. All subjects can be taught in a manner that they encourage raising questions and offering answers.
(iv) Classical Languages:
The old belief that classical language should be taught for its disciplinary value is no longer tenable. Even its linguistic value is questionable. Experiments on transfer value of Latin by Thorndike do not give credit to Latin beyond 10% transfer. In India we may teach Sanskrit not for its transfer value for Hindi or modern Indian languages, but for its literary importance.
(v) Grammar may be taught only for its practical use and application:
The present grammar teachers get lost in details of parsing, tenses, moods, analysis, transformation and etymology, which have no bearing upon the real objectives of teaching the subject, as these do not help correct expression or smooth communication. “The transfer is to take place from expression to grammar, that is, expression and communication is to take place first and then correct grammatical usage is to follow.”
(v) Subjects related to life:
Subjects and topics which are directly connected with our vocations, physical environment, social environment social living and life-situations have great transfer value. Hence stress should be laid on those subjects which bear daily needs and help solving life problems.
Diversification of courses, and presenting groups of subjects directly connected with future vocations of the pupils, or certain areas of life, will help the pupils in gaining appropriate knowledge of maximum utility which have transfer value for vocations and life-activities.
4. Methods of Instruction and Transfer:
For securing desirable transfer, the present methods of instructions shall have to be modified and overhauled, on the evidences of experimentations (cited above). There is no ‘best method’. But there are varying approaches to instruction in accordance with varying situations.
(i) Importance of goals:
Firstly goals and outcomes of each subject should be clearly stated. It is only recently that attempts have been made in analysing a particular subjects in terms of objectives, behaviour patterns and learning experiences. Much of what is useless and unrelated to the objectives of a subject is being discarded.
The awareness of goals both on the part of the teacher and the pupil will lead to devotion to work, habits of thoroughness, exactness, accuracy, sound attitude to work and consciousness of the utility for future occasions.
(ii) Understanding of Individual Differences:
The teacher should study each pupil and his credit side and debit side, so as to vary with great flexibility his teaching methods, illustrating material and emphasis on the subject-matter. Approaches towards bright and dull pupils will differ, otherwise the same approach might cause negative transfer.
(iii) Integrated Approach:
It was Herbert who emphasised first the need for correlating various school subjects, and further upon concentrating upon subject as a centre of study for many other subjects. Ziller and Colonel Parker actually put this idea into practice. Froebel kept play as the centre of all study. Transfer from one central subject to many others was considered possible.
Dewey gave the integrated approach, and propounded the problem and the project method through which a number of subjects could be introduced in an integrated manner, with their common elements emphasised at one place.
Modern experiments on transfer, the Theory of Common Components, vouchsafe the fact that maximum transfer can be procured by integrating different subjects and emphasising their common elements, principles or generalisations.
(iv) Attitude towards work:
The value and importance of attitude towards work and study has already been explained above (Theory of Ideals). Healthy attitudes and worthy ideals get integrated into the mental and moral make-up of the pupil, and thus these ensure greater transfer.
The pupils should study with a spirit of enquiry, desire to know love for wisdom and hunger of the soul. All scientific discoveries have been preceded by this attitude. Such an attitude will be transferable from one subject to another.
(v) Practical application of knowledge:
Practical application of knowledge and out-of-school experiences are helpful in assimilating the core of a particular subject. Which can help transfer. Every subject, including the sciences should be taught intelligently with the scope of practical application. Mursell remarks in this regard.
“When any ability is most intelligently taught and organised for its own sake, it is thereby taught and organised in such a way as will facilitate transfer, and its converse; when we deliberately work for the transfer of some ability, we facilitate its acquisition in its own right.”
We may conclude that securing of maximum transfer depends solely upon the teacher. It is he who can inculcate worthy ideals and attitudes which secure maximum transfer in all situations. It is he who can find out that he wants to teach, and for what goal. Transfer can take place, if the goals of teaching are known, and the appropriate methods are used.