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After reading this article you will learn about the topographical and dynamic aspects of mind developed by Frued.
Topographical Aspect of Mind:
Freud has divided the structure of mind into three levels:
i. Conscious,
ii. Preconscious or subconscious and
iii. Unconscious.
i. Conscious:
By consciousness Freud meant that segment of the mind which is concerned with immediate awareness. Thus, consciousness may be described as the awareness of any stimulus, any object or any situation, the capacity of having experience or the relation of the self to the environment.
It is also defined as the sum-total of the individual’s experience at any given moment and the capacity of the individual to know external objects and influence them.
Consciousness always refers to the experience or awareness of an object at the present moment. While reading a book one is only aware of what has been written there and he is not aware of the sound coming from the time piece or moving fan.
Similarly, when one is witnessing a football match, he is only aware of the match. Mind, which consists of conscious, subconscious and unconscious aspects deals with the experiences of the whole life while consciousness only deals with the current experiences of which the individual is fully aware.
Freud has compared the human mind to an iceberg and stated that only one-tenth part of the mind deals with conscious experience. According to him most of our activities are usually guided by the unconscious mind.
ii. Subconscious or Preconscious:
As pointed out by Brown (1940) that segment of the mind where the readily recallable is to be located is called by Freud the preconscious or subconscious. Thus, subconscious is a process of which the individual is not aware but which appears otherwise akin to the process of conscious experience, i.e., deemly or marginally conscious.
When a particular object is in the subconscious stage, the individual is not directly or immediately aware of it but it can come to his consciousness at any moment. The subconscious is the storehouse of surface memories and are readily recallable though are not conscious at the moment. The subconscious idea is weak and when it gets some force from the outside, it comes to the conscious part of the mind.
According to this process, we can bring into the consciousness a lot of things such as names, dates, arguments and several past experiences etc.
For instance, someone is reading a book and the time piece is kept in front of him. He is only aware of what he is reading. But when the time piece stops all of a sudden, one becomes immediately aware of it. This so happens because the sound of the time piece was in the margin and the book was in the centre of the reader’s conscious mind.
One, who is attending to y of this figure, is fully aware of y. But he is deemly or marginally conscious of the other letters such as m, a, b, f, z, and x. When one letter is taken away the x person is immediately conscious of its absence. 
iii. Unconscious:
Freud (1927) has done major work to popularize the term unconsciousness. So much so that his whole system of psychoanalysis is based on unconscious and repression. Among the three topographical aspects of mind such as conscious, subconscious and unconscious, Freud has given maximum emphasis on the concept of unconscious. So much so that he views that about 9/10 part of the mind is unconscious.
Reviewing the historical background of the unconscious mental process, it is proved that long before Freud, the German philosopher and Mathematician Leibnitz (1816) used the idea of unconscious mental process. In the first quarter of the 19th century Herbart (1816) introduced a dynamic theory of unconscious mental functions.
Fechner, Hartman and Schopenhauer also recognized the importance of unconscious mental process long before Freud. Freud’s theory of unconscious was derived from experience in hypnotism and catharsis.
“The most spectacular phenomenon of amnesia and the restoration of memories, in therapy called for an assumption of a continuum in which memories, loss of memories, regaining of memories could be represented.”
However, it remained for Freud to give a new dimension to the concept of unconscious mental process by predicting its tremendous impact on the development of human personality and its significant role in mental abnormality. In fact, Freud gave it a new colour, new recognition and made the term unconscious popular as well as important in the world.
Freud tried to explore the contents of unconscious mind through hypnosis, psychoanalysis and dream analysis. He brought into surface the role of unconscious wishes which are dynamic and try all the while to come to the conscious mind. Through free association and dream analysis techniques he tried to unveil the mysteries of unconscious mind which is so much useful for treating mental patients.
From various dream analysis, he noticed that all the unconscious wishes and urges of an individual are reflected in his dreams in disguise form and therefore he rightly pointed out that, ‘dream is the royal road to unconscious’.
Thus, Freud by and large has made the concept of unconscious more useful by relating it to his findings as well as to the findings of other psycho pathologists. The discovery of unconscious erased the view that man is a rational animal which was the great pride of mankind.
It is therefore evident that Sigmund Freud is the first person who focused the world’s attention on unconscious aspect of mind though it was dealt with other psychologists and philosophers of two decade back.
Brown (1940) has explained the process of unconscious in the following terms… “we all have experienced materials which we cannot recall at will but which may occur to us automatically and which we know is present in our minds through hypnosis and other experimental procedures.”
This segment of the mind is the Freudian unconscious. In it are to be found the ideas as wishes and strivings which were once in the conscious, but which have been forced into the unconscious.
Unconscious may be defined as the characteristics of an activity which occurs with no awareness of it on the part of the organism that executes the activity. It can also be defined as certain dynamic processes which do not reach consciousness in-spite of their effectiveness and intensity and which cannot be brought into the consciousness by any effort of will or act of memory.
Analysis of normal activity can reveal what is unconsciousness and how it exists. Running away from a snake apprehending danger is a normal activity. But running away from a spider or a frog or a bunch of hair due to fear are signs of some complexes present in the individual.
The underlying causes of such complexes lie in the unconscious and hence the individual is not aware of such causes. Similarly, the cause of crying at the sight of a flower being over shadowed by the idea of pessimism lies deep in. the dark ‘ chamber of one’s unconscious mind.
A student who was under hypnotism was asked to open an umbrella and he immediately obliged. Next day when he was questioned about it, he could not recall the incident. Again, next day when an umbrella was kept in front of him he immediately ran and opened the same. When he was asked to explain this behaviour he could not give any reasonable explanation as it happened in his unconscious state.
Several day to day incidents along with these examples indicate that unconscious is something of which we are not directly aware. The importance attached to unconscious in human personality by Freud is well evident when he compared the human mind to an ice berg and opined that 9/10th part of it is unconscious.
The process of unconscious is not static but remarkably dynamic and it always tries to come to the surface. It is extremely powerful and more dynamic than the conscious. The unconscious is just like a balloon on the water which persistently tries to come out.
The dynamicity of unconsciousness is proved in the psychopathology of everyday life such as careless actions like slip of tongue, common forgetting, slip of pen and inner conflicts. In dream we are mostly in the unconscious stage and sometimes in the subconscious stage.
So the ‘Id’ tries to satisfy many of the repressed and unsatisfied wishes through dreams which all the time remain dynamic in the unconscious and try to came out. It has therefore been rightly remarked that dreams are the royal road to unconsciousness and no dream can be explained without referring to the unconscious state of an individual.
Characteristics of Unconscious:
There are several forces in the society which force back the irrational, elemental, sexual antisocial and animalistic desires to the dark chamber of unconscious. Such desires which never get a chance to be satisfied remain there in a dynamic form. The unconscious mental process of an individual is full of raw instinctive urges and irrational desires which are not recognized by the reality and the ego and hence not satisfied.
The ego tries to suppress or sink below the unconscious desires which are responsible to create all sorts of illness and irregularities in personality. Freud in this connection remarks. “The contents of unconscious come from two sources. A portion consists of primitive pleasure dominated by somewhat brutal ideas that have never been considered. They are part of the individual inheritance.”
The second source consists of thoughts, meanings and wishes that were once conscious (the desire of sex or aggression) but has been repressed or pushed back to the hinterland of mind because they were too shocking, painful and shameful to tolerate in the society.
The return of these unconscious desires to the conscious is strongly avoided by the ego, but they always try to come out. A student may forget to bring his notebook to the class because in his unconscious state he does not want to show this note book to the teacher. A person may forget to post a letter containing objectionable elements. This is due to the operation of unconscious state of mind.
The unconscious is the storehouse of buried thoughts, emotions, impulses and irrational desires. It is timeless, chaotic, infantile, primitive and illogical. It is full of forces of vigour and dynamics. But in-spite of the force and vigour of unconscious wishes and desires to act, every unconscious activity need not necessarily be conscious.
The antisocial and the ‘Id’ tendencies of the unconscious plot against the ego and try to get pleasure by coming out. The id, which is full of unconscious desires tries to predominate the ego and hence there is conflict between the id and the ego. Once the id defeats the ego, there is supreme reign of the unconsciousness and ultimately develops a disorganized personality due to lack of touch with the reality.
The more is the unconscious desire, the more is the personality unbalanced. But when there is a balance or compromise between the two, the personality is stable, organised and the individual leads a normal life. On the contrary, if there is no compromise but conflict between the conscious and the unconscious, it results in physical pain and psychological tension.
In the unconscious aspect of mind we find those ideas and wishes which were once conscious but pressed back to the unconscious due to the resistance and restrictions of the society. There are also certain desires in the unconscious which have their origin in the energy of the id and have never been conscious.
Therefore, the best way for the ego to develop a well balanced personality is to throw light on the dark chamber of unconscious, recognize its existence and to make more compromise. Then only, the unconscious urges become powerless. Hence, the unconscious urges must be given some chance to be satisfied which may not do any harm to the society.
Our day to day activity, dream, unconscious urges and repression etc. cannot be explained without the unconscious mind. The manifestations of the mind cannot be understood unless the conscious ego knows some of the unconscious tendencies and urges.
Dynamic Aspects of Mind:
Freud (1927) is the first modern psychologist who made an attempt to give a scientific description of the different parts of human personality. He introduced the three basic divisions of personality into id, ego and superego into his psychoanalytic theory. Freud has managed to make this complex division of personality from the observation of various patients and the analysis of their case histories.
Id, Ego and Superego come under the dynamic aspects of personality. The dynamic aspects of self according to Freud refer to the agents through which conflicts arising in the instincts are resolved. The adult develops ego and superego out of id through conflicts in the earlier periods of life.
Freud maintained that the infant at birth and soon after remains a biological organism and his behaviour is guided by biological needs. In the beginning the child is only guided by the principle of getting pleasure and avoiding pain which is mainly said to be id desires. But gradually ego and superego develop out of id. Thus, the child grows with his ego and superego.
At birth the infant is neither moral nor immoral, but amoral. A child acquires the moral and social principles from the society as he grows up through the process of socialisation and thus develops his ego and superego. The id has been described as the source of psychic energy containing purely unconscious ideas.
i. Id:
The id, otherwise known as the pleasure principle stands for all the antisocial and immoral wishes, desires, motives and strivings. According to Freud, “the id stands for untamed passions, and is a storehouse of seething excitement.” It acts as a reservoir for libido which refers to the energy of sexual impulses.
The id is completely dominated by the operation of the pleasure principle. Unconscious, sexual and aggressive ideas originate in the id. The id is the representative of the unconscious and the store house of instinctual desires.
Such desires are mainly sexual and aggressive in nature and most of Diem is not satisfied because generally they are antisocial in nature. The id has no idea of time, reality and social restrictions either. The id which is mostly unconscious always wants to get pleasure and immediate satisfaction by fulfilling the illogical, irrational and antisocial desires.
The id is entirely guided by the principle of pleasure and avoidance of pain and corresponds roughly to the popular conception of beast in man.
Further, the id according to Freud is the main reservoir of both the life and dead instincts and the receptacle of unorganized excitements and desires. It wants that some of its illogical, irrational and antisocial desires and strivings must be satisfied and there is no question of rejecting it.
If such desires and wishes are not accepted by the society, say marrying a girl of another religion or committing the murder of an enemy or killing one’s own dear ones, they do not die or perish, but continue to exist for their gratification.
The desires of the id are mainly unconscious and at the same time largely repressed because repression mostly takes place in the childhood. At birth, the child is totally id and he has no further desire except to get pleasure. Thus, the id is the treasure house of such desires and buried thoughts which are guided by the pleasure principle. It is devoid of morality, conscience and social value.
ii. Ego:
The ego according to Freud (1927) is the self, the I or the conscious intelligence. It is the executive division of personality. It deals with all the psychological processes like thinking, perception, memory, judgment, reasoning and action.
It controls the satisfaction of illogical and antisocial desires and strivings by maintaining a balance between the id and the superego desires. The ego in short, means the ‘I’ that thinks, feels, considers, wills and decides.
As the administrative officer of the personality, the ego is mainly conscious and party unconscious and it can function at any of the three levels of consciousness. It is the only part of the personality which has the closest contact with the physical reality, and external world.
In the earliest stage, the child is totally id and is only interested in getting pleasure. But as the child grows up with the growth of personality the ego develops out of the id. According to William James, the ego is one that develops as a result of environmental influence and stress.
It stands for sanity, reason and judgment in opposition to the sexual libido even though it arose as a differentiation from the original sensual mass. Kempt views that it is a socialised portion of the personality. In the earlier stage of development, the ego desires are but slightly different from those of the id. But as the development proceeds, the id and the ego go in opposite directions.
The ego permits the satisfaction of only those desires and urges which are not antisocial but are consistent with the knowledge of the physical and social reality. It makes an adjustment between ” the wishes of the id and the demands of the physical reality and establishes balance between the environment and the organism.
The ego thus distinguishes between rights and wrongs, dos and don’ts and tries to satisfy the id desires as far as practicable. It is said while the ego stands for reason, the id stands for passion.
The ego perceives the existence of outside reality and is only a part of the id which becomes modified because of its proximity to the external world. Thus, it tries to bring a harmony between id and super ego desires being the mediator. It is therefore viewed that the ego stands for reason and circumspection while the id stands for untrained passions.
Functions of the ego:
The ego has the following functions:
(a) To satisfy the nutritional needs of the body and protect against injury.
(b) To adjust the wishes of the id to the demands of reality.
(c) To enforce repression.
(d) To coordinate the antagonistic strivings of the id and the superego.
Freud, in his introductory lectures, compared the id and the ego to that of the rider and the horse respectively. The id which is the representative of the horse provides energy and the movements of the horse are controlled by the ego. The ego, to block and check the impulses coming from the id, uses its own supply of the psychic energy. This opposition of the ego energy to the id energy is called counter catharsis.
Anna Freud (1946) gives the description of this struggle between the id and the ego in the following lines:
“…impulses run the risk of incurring the displeasure of institutions essentially alien to them. They are exposed to criticism and rejection and have to submit to every kind of modification. Peaceful relations between the neighbouring powers are at an end. The instinctual impulses continue to pursue their aims with their own peculiar tenacity and energy and they make hostile incursions into the ego in the hope of overthrowing it by a surprise attack. The ego on its side becomes suspicious; it proceeds to counter attack and to invade the territory of the id. Its purpose is to put the instincts permanently out of action by means of appropriate defensive measures designed to secure its own boundaries.”
But this is not always true, Sometimes the id refuses to be controlled by the ego and runs in any direction it likes, just as the horse sometimes does not obey the man, so the harmony breaks and the man becomes abnormal.
Superego:
The superego is the further development of the id. As the human child grows and comes in contact with the rules, regulations, standards, Values and codes of the society, another aspect of his personality develops. This is called the superego, popularly known as the conscience or the moral principle. It is partly conscious and mainly unconscious.
The superego represents the dos and don’ts of our society. In other words, the superego is the moral and judicial branch of personality. It represents the ideal rather than the real and it strives for perfection rather than for reality or for pleasure. The super ego is the introjections and representative of the parents and the embodiment of all social restrictions and moral, ethical values.
As popularly believed, it is not really built up on the model of parents’ superego. It becomes the vehicle of tradition and of all the age long values which have been handed down in the way from generation to generation.
When the child is small, he has no superego. He is not aware of the moral principles, values and norms of the society. But as the child grows up, in the process of social interaction, he internalizes all the restrictions of the society which are told and taught to him by his parents and teachers. Thus, he develops a conscience within himself.
Hence, it has been observed that as one acts towards his parents, similarly, he acts towards the superego. The superego is a much severe representative of the realities. It contains the ideals which we set for our own behaviours and standards, but to which we rarely reach.
The normal human being has a superego which consists of all the normal restrictions. The superego enforces to action the moralities, prohibitions and social standards in the individual which is planted in him by his parents, teachers and social group.
It is viewed by Brown (1949) that the superego is the chief force making for the socialisation of the individual. Until the superego develops, the individual would have no socialized conscience and no competitive ideal. This he learns from the society. It is through the superego that the child learns what is good and virtuous and what is bad and sinful.
The superego exercises its power over the ego. It represses all the, instinctual and antisocial desires through the ego though not directly. It gives warning to the ego in the form of anxiety and controls the ego activities. It decides which libidinal activities are permissible. In the earlier stage it is hard, rigid and severe task master a dictator over the child.
The superego gives the signal to the ego in the form of anxiety that here there is something unreasonable which produces a kind of subjective and psychological anxiety and guilt feeling. Since it refers almost to the conscience of the individual, it creates feelings of guilt, remorse and anxiety. Thus it is called by Freud as the ego ideal.
That is to say, it contains the ideals that we fix for our own behaviour. Then the ego after getting the warning signal represses or suppresses those desires which are not accepted by the superego. No doubt this ego ideal is a precipitation of the old idea of parents which indicates his admiration for his parents.
III. Development of the superego:
The superego takes a long period of development from birth up to the age of 7 to 8 years. It develops gradually with the development of socialisation and growth of personality. In the beginning the infant is mainly guided by id desires and so there is no internal principle. But gradually with the socialisation of personality he comes to know the dos and don’ts of the society. He is not allowed to do whatever he likes and desires.
He is sometimes punished when he does not obey the principles of the society. Through threat and punishment he is taught to control his id desires which are not acceptable by the society.
The parents exercise their external power over the child for the development of internalised standards and superego. Though the child hesitates to sacrifice all his irrational wishes and urges, he tries to give up most of them partly out of affection for the parents and partly for fear of punishment.
As the child grows up, the external restriction of the parents are interjected. Through this mechanism the superego takes the place of parental function. The parents may not be present to be the punishing authorities, but the superego acts as a representative of the parents and it is formed after the image of the parents and other family members.
The superego observes, guides and threatens the ego just as the parents act before the child’s superego is developed. Therefore, according to some the superego is said to be the internal parent. It is viewed that the standards embodied in the parents influence became re-erected in the child’s own unconscious forming the nucleus of the superego.
This provides the criticism of what should and what should not be repressed. The unconscious conscience begins to work here which directs and regularizes the desire of the ego. When the parents want to force upon the child ways to make him an ideal one in the society a time may come when the child would revolt to it.
This leads to reaction formation. In some cases the children of strict parents turn to criminals due to this reaction formation. They turn to criminals as a revolt against the accepted laws of the society.
Hence too much of strictness and rigidity on the part of the parents and guardians lead to unconscious rejection of the principle of parents and hence a weak superego develops.
However, these are only exceptional cases. In majority of children the ego is formed after the image of parents. Thus, the superego develops as a result of the introjection and identification with the parents. Referring to the development of superego, Freud has remarked that “superego is the heir to Oedipus complex”.
In other words, the superego matures in the child at a time when the Oedipus complex is passing away. It is at this time that the superego comes to function. But until Oedipus complex has not passed out completely the superego will not be able to attain its full development.
In the beginning the superego is very rigid, unbending and a hard task master, but as more and more new material is incorporated in the superego, it begins to lose its severity, its dogmatism and its narrowness of outlook. The establishment of the superego can be described as a successful instance of identification with the parental function.
This new creation of a superior function within the ego is closely bound up with the fate of the Oedipus complex, so that the superego appears as the heir of that emotional tie which is of such importance for the childhood.
If the overcoming of the Oedipus complex is not completely successful, the superego does not attain the full strength. During the course of its growth, the superego also takes over the place of his parents and guardians.
Interrelated function of Id, Ego and Superego:
Describing the role played by the Id, Ego, and Superego in human personality Freud has remarked. “The id is primarily basically conditioned, the ego is primarily conditioned to the physical environment and the superego is primarily sociologically and cultural condition.”
There is all the while a constant struggle between the forces of the id desiring the satisfaction of sexual and aggressive urges and the superego which is the representative of the conscience and social regulations.
The poor ego has to serve a very hard task by acting as a mediator between these two forces and trying to maintain a balance by satisfying some of the id desires and fulfilling some of the super ego desires. For example, the id of the individual wants to view a picture just before the final examination.
The superego says “no don’t see the picture, you have your examinations.” The ego makes an adjustment between the two wishes by taking a decision that the picture will be viewed after the examination is over.
Somebody wants to beat his enemy, the superego says no. You should not do it, it is illogical and unacceptable by the society. The ego says yes, I can beat, but he is more powerful, he has many friends and so he might give me a severe beating and hence let me not beat him.
In this way, the ego tries to maintain a balance between the id and the superego desires by using some sort of defence mechanism or by delaying it for some time and thereby is able to resolve the conflict arising out of id and superego desire.
Such are the examples of conflict in the conscious level of the individual’s personality. But there are also several unconscious conflicts of which the individual is not conscious or aware.
Freud has compared the id with the horse, the ego with the driver and the superego, the back seat driver. The ego has the most complex task of serving three masters, i.e., the Id, the Superego and the external reality, and reconcile the claims and order of the three.
In a normal adult personality according to Brown, there is a fairly harmonious balance maintained between the Id, the Ego and the Superego and the external reality.
But on the contrary, if the ego is weak and unable to resolve the conflict and maintain a balance between these three forces, because of the divergent and contradictory demands it breaks down and thus the personality is disorganized and the individual becomes abnormal.
When either the id tries to dominate or the reality is lost, the ego breaks down and there is onset of anxiety. It is the first symptom or danger signal for any mental disease due to disorganization of personality.
This anxiety can be of three types:
(a) Reality Anxiety:
Reality anxiety arises in the face of external world. It occurs to many of us in our day to day life. Reality anxiety is not unhealthy as often found in many normal people. It does not lead to abnormality because the factors causing reality anxieties can be altered. Reality anxiety is not unhealthy.
It is often found in normal people. Reality anxiety facilitates learning and improves performance. If only a couple of weeks are left for the examination and the candidate speeds up with revision work, it is due to the reality anxiety which is really helpful.
(ii) Moral Anxiety:
It is experienced in the face of the superego when the superego thinks that these acts which the ego wants to fulfil are illegal, immoral and sinful. The superego causes anxiety by always pushing the ego to be only moral and moral.
(c) Neurotic Anxiety:
Neurotic anxiety is caused by id desires. It occurs in the face of the id. When the sexual and aggressive urges demanded to be fulfilled by the id are not fulfilled due to the restrictions imposed by the superego and the ego, the self experiences neurotic anxiety.
For instance, before the examination a student instead of preparing for the examination and speeding up with the revision work becomes nervous and is unable to proceed with preparation, it is a case of neurotic anxiety.
Reality anxiety is not unhealthy and dangerous for personality. But the anxieties arising out of id and superego are dangerous because the factors having anxiety cannot be avoided since the id and superego are not under control.
When the id desires overpower the superego desires and the ego is not able to control it or the vice-versa, the level of anxiety increases, there is disorganization and final breakdown of the harmony of personality leading to mental illness. On the contrary, in a normal, balanced and well integrated personality the ego succeeds in maintaining harmonious relationship between the id, superego and the reality principle.
Conflicts occur throughout life and mild conflicts are frequently experienced by normal individuals. But in extreme and severe cases of conflicts and specially when the conflicts could not be resolved, the self is diverted into parts and there is thus a multiple personality.
The id is fully unconscious, the ego is fully conscious and the superego is mainly unconscious and partly conscious. Most part of our mind is unconscious. This view of Freud has given a severe blow to the belief of mankind that we are so rational, we are aware of what we are doing and so on.
In fact, about 90 per cent of the human mind is full of unconscious ideas and storehouse of repressed, suppressed and buried thoughts. Freud has compared the human mind with an iceberg, 9/10th part of which remains inside water and only 1/10th part on the surface. This further suggests how much of our personality is unknown to us and how less we know about ourselves.
Economical Behaviour of the Ego:
The conflict between the id, superego and external reality because of contradictory and divergent demands is resolved by the ego. The behaviour of an individual is the outcome of this struggle taking place in the unconscious, subconscious and conscious level. The normal resolution of the conflicts leads to balanced, organized and finally normal personality.
For this dynamic resolution of conflict to enable an individual to lead a normal life in this society, the ego has to use certain means which is called the economical aspects of behaviour. By minimum expenditure of energy when the ego tries to resolve the conflicts, it refers to the economical aspects of behaviour.
Usually, by the help of various defence mechanisms the ego tries to maintain a balance between the id and the superego desire in an economic fashion without much expenditure of energy.
Sometimes, however, excessive use of certain defence mechanisms may lead to various types of mental abnormalities which will be discussed later on. But even if mental abnormality is not terrible and unfortunate for a human personality, yet it is economical. Only by doing so as Brown views, the individual is able to continue as an intact organism.
He is able to continue and leave a tolerable life in this world even with some symptoms. For instance, a psychic patient who is not conscious of his disease and mental symptoms and who has no touch with the reality is able to avoid suicide by the development of psychotic symptoms.
Whatever the world may think of him, but he is completely unaware of the disorganization of his personality, of his anxieties, of his depression etc. He leads a life like any normal human being completely oblivious of his environment, surroundings and symptoms which are said to be maladaptive and faulty reactions.